Why are motor skills important?
Skilled motor performance is foundational to many human activities in daily life, sports, the performing arts, in occupations such as law enforcement, firefighting, or the military and medical professions. Also, instructing others in the process of learning motor skills is central to a variety of professions. Physical and occupational therapists, coaches, athletic trainers, physical education teachers, music instructors, training specialists, etc. design practice tasks and schedules, provide instructions, and give learners feedback with the goal of facilitating the acquisition of effective and efficient movement patterns. The objective of training is to achieve a skill level that is characterized by accuracy and consistency in achieving the movement goal (i.e., effectiveness), as well as automaticity, and fluent and economical movements that require little physical and mental effort (i.e., efficiency). Moreover, many situations involve social pressure, the pressure of winning or losing a game, monetary awards, or even the potential for harm. Thus, training should ideally enable performers to avoid performance decrements in pressure situations.
Why is it important to understand the factors that influence motor skill learning?
The understanding of how various factors influence motor performance and learning is essential for the development of optimal training methods. The implementation of effective practice methods can speed the learning process, resulting in higher skill levels being achieved sooner and potentially reduced costs of training (e.g., physical rehabilitation, medical education). Optimized training protocols may also enhance performers’ safety (e.g., patients at risk of falling, military personnel, athletes in high-risk sports) or even ultimate performance levels (e.g., athletes competing internationally).
The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning
A few years ago, Dr. Rebecca Lewthwaite and I proposed the OPTIMAL (Optimizing Performance Through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning) theory of motor learning (Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016). The theory explains well-established effects of motivational (autonomy, enhanced expectancies) and attentional (external focus) factors on performance and learning.
All three key factors in the OPTIMAL theory — autonomy, enhanced expectancies, and an external focus of attention — have been shown to affect the neural and neuromuscular system and to have impacts on movement effectiveness, efficiency, and automaticity. These influences have immediate effects on performance, and also result in longer-term advantages for motor-skill learning. The theory therefore has important practical implications for teaching, coaching, and physical rehabilitation.
Selected OPTIMAL Publications
OPTIMAL Review Papers
Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2021). Translating thoughts in action: Optimizing motor performance and learning through brief motivational and attentional influences. Current Directions in Psychology, 30, 535-541.
Wulf, G. (2021). Motor performance. In French, D., & Torres Ronda, L. (Eds.), NSCA’s Essentials of Sport Science (p. 421-229). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Wulf, G. (2019). Optimal Bewegung lernen. Physiopraxis (1), 32-35.
Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2019). OPTIMAL theory. In Hackfort, D., Schinke, R., & Strauss, B (Eds.), Dictionary of Sport Psychology. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier.
Wulf, G. (2018). Die OPTIMAL-Theorie motorischen Lernens: Implikationen für die physiotherapeutische Praxis. pt_Zeitschrift für Physiotherapeuten, 70, 37-42.
Wulf, G., Orr, S., Chauvel, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2018). Optimizing golf skill learning. The PGA Professional, 14, 51-53.
Lewthwaite, R., & Wulf, G. (2017). Optimizing motivation and attention for motor performance and learning. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 38-42.
Wulf, G., Orr, S., & Chauvel, G. (2017). Optimizing golf skill learning. In M. Toms (Ed.), The Routledge International Handbook of Golf Science (p. 88-97). London: Routledge.
“Optimizing” Performance and Learning Conditions
Khalaji, Z., Salehi, H., Alhosseini, M. N., Lewthwaite, R., & Wulf, G. (2024). A clinical examination of OPTIMAL theory application in people with multiple sclerosis: A proof-of-concept study and implications for rehabilitation practice. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research. https://doi.org/10.1097/MRR.0000000000000653.
Khalaji, Z., Alhosseini, M. N., Hamami, S. S., Iwatsuki, T., & Wulf., G. (2024). Optimizing motor learning in older adults. Journal of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 79, 1-7.https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbad120.
An, J., Chua, L.-K., & Wulf, G. (2021). Optimizing golf putting. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 19, 882-894.
Abdollahipour, R., Valtr, L., & Wulf, G. (2020). Optimizing performance in bowling. Journal of Motor Learning and Development, 8, 233-244.
Chua, L.-K., Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2020). Choose your words wisely: Optimizing impacts on standardized performance testing. Gait & Posture, 79, 210-216.
Singh, H., Hockwald, A., Drake, N., Avedesian, J., Lee, S.-P., & Wulf, G. (2020). Maximal force production requires OPTIMAL conditions. Human Movement Science, 73.
Chua, L.-K., Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2018). Onward and upward: Optimizing motor performance. Human Movement Science, 60, 107-114.
Wulf, G., Lewthwaite, R., Cardozo, P., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2018). Triple play: Additive contributions of enhanced expectancies, autonomy support, and external attentional focus to motor learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71, 824-831.
Providing Autonomy Support
Iwatsuki, T., Shih, H.-T., Abdollahipour, R., & Wulf, G. (2021). More bang for the buck: Autonomy support increases muscular efficiency. Psychological Research, 85, 439-445.
Wehlmann, J. A., & Wulf, G. (2020). Bullseye: Effects of autonomy support and enhanced expectancies on dart throwing. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching.
An, J., Lewthwaite, R., Lee, S., & Wulf, G. (2020). Choice of practice-task order enhances golf skill learning. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 50, 101737.
Iwatsuki, T., Navalta, J., & Wulf, G. (2019). Autonomy enhances running efficiency. Journal of Sports Sciences, 37, 685-691.
Halperin, I., Wulf, G., Vigotsky, A., Schoenfeld, B. J., & Behm, D. G. (2018). Autonomy: The missing ingredient of a successful program? Strength and Conditioning Journal, 40, 18-25.
Wulf, G., Iwatsuki, T., Machin, B., Kellogg, J., Copeland, C., & Lewthwaite, R. (2018). Lassoing motor learning through task-irrelevant or task-relevant choices. Journal of Motor Behavior, 50, 285-292.
Abdollahipour, R., Palomo Nieto, M., Psotta, R., & Wulf, G. (2017). External focus of attention and autonomy support have additive benefits for motor performance in children. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 32, 17-24.
Iwatsuki, T., Abdollahipour, R., Psotta, R., Lewthwaite, R., & Wulf, G. (2017). Autonomy facilitates repeated maximum force productions. Human Movement Science, 55, 264-268.
Lemos, A., Wulf, G., Lewthwaite, R., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2017). Autonomy support enhances performance expectancies, positive affect, and motor learning. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 31, 28-34.
Halperin, I., Chapman, D. T., Martin, D. T., Lewthwaite, R., & Wulf, G. (2017). Choices enhance punching performance of competitive kickboxers. Psychological Research, 81, 1051-1058.
Halperin, I., & Wulf, G. (2016). The science of coaching instruction in martial arts – Part 3. Blitz – Australian Martial Arts Magazine, 30 (4), 40-42.
Lewthwaite, R., Chiviacowsky, S., Drews, R., & Wulf, G. (2015). Choose to move: The motivational impact of autonomy support on motor learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22, 1383-1388.
Wulf, G., Chiviacowsky, S., & Drews, R. (2015). External focus and autonomy support: Two important factors in motor learning have additive benefits. Human Movement Science, 40, 176-184.
Enhancing Expectancies
Martinez, V. M., Cardozo, P., Kaefer, A., Wulf, G., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2024). Positive feedback enhances motivation and skill learning in adolescents. Learning and Motivation, 86, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2024.101966.
Wulf, G., & Lucash, G. (2021). Optimizing figure skating performance – Part 1. The Professional Skater – PS Magazine, January/February, 10-13.
Wehlmann, J. A., & Wulf, G. (2020). Bullseye: Effects of autonomy support and enhanced expectancies on dart throwing. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching.
Montes, J., Wulf, G., & Navalta, J. W. (2018). Maximal aerobic capacity can be increased by enhancing performers’ expectancies. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 58, 744-749.
Bahmani, M., Wulf, G., Ghadiri, F., & Karimi, S., & Lewthwaite, R. (2017). Enhancing performance expectancies through visual illusions facilitates motor learning in children. Human Movement Science, 55, 1-7.
Halperin, I., & Wulf, G. (2016). The science of coaching instruction in martial arts – Part 2. Blitz – Australian Martial Arts Magazine, 30 (3), 41-42.
Palmer, K., Chiviacowsky, S., & Wulf, G. (2016). Enhanced expectancies facilitate golf putting. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 229-232.
Chauvel, G., Wulf, G., & Maquestiaux, F. (2015). Enhanced expectancies resulting from visual illusions can facilitate sport skill learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22, 717-721.
Pascua, L.A.M., Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2015). Additive benefits of external focus and enhanced performance expectancy for motor learning. Journal of Sports Sciences, 33, 58-66.
Promoting an External Focus of Attention
An, J., & Wulf, G. (2024). Golf skill learning: An external focus of attention enhances performance and motivation. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 70, 102563.
Singh, H., Shih, H.-T., Kal, E., Bennett, T. B., & Wulf, G. (2022). A distal external focus of attention facilitates compensatory coordination of body parts. Journal of Sports Sciences, 40, 2284-2291.
Singh, H., & Wulf, G. (2022). Mind over body: Creating an external focus for sport skills. European Journal for Sport Science, 22, 610-616.
Chua, L.-K., Jimenez-Diaz, J., Lewthwaite, R., Kim, T., & Wulf, G. (2021). Superiority of external attentional focus for motor performance and learning: Systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 147, 618-645.
Wulf, G. (2021). A winning edge for the Olympics and everyday life: Focusing on what you’re trying to accomplish rather than what’s going on with your body. The Conversation, July 23.
Wulf, G., & Lucash, G. (2021). Optimizing figure skating performance – Part 2. The Professional Skater – PS Magazine, March/April, 10-13.
Banks, S. D., Sproul, J., Higgins, P., & Wulf, G. (2020). Forward thinking: When a distal external focus makes you faster. Human Movement Science.
Singh, H., & Wulf, G. (2020). The distance effect and level of expertise: Is the optimal external focus different for novices and experts? Human Movement Science, 73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2020.102663
Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2020). Optimizing attentional focus. In G. Tenenbaum & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (4th ed.) (p. 653-665), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ.
Chua, L.-K., Dimapilis, M. K., Iwatsuki, T., Abdollahipour, R., Lewthwaite, R., & Wulf, G. (2019). Practice variability promotes an external focus of attention and enhances motor skill learning. Human Movement Science, 64, 307-319.
Mornell, A., & Wulf, G. (2019). External focus of attention enhances musical performance. Journal of Research in Music Education, 66, 375-391.
Wulf, G. (2019). Attentional focus (external versus internal). In Hackfort, D., Schinke, R., & Strauss, B. (Eds.), Dictionary of Sport Psychology. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier.
Abdollahipour, R., Palomo Nieto, M., Psotta, R., & Wulf, G. (2017). External focus of attention and autonomy support have additive benefits for motor performance in children. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 32, 17-24.
Guss-West, C., & Wulf, G. (2016). Attentional focus in classical ballet: A survey of professional dancers. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science, 20, 23-29.
Halperin, I., & Wulf, G. (2016). The science of combat – Part 1: Instruction psychology. Blitz – Australian Martial Arts Magazine, 30, 80-82.
Abdollahipour, R., Wulf, G., Psotta, R., & Palomo Nieto, M. (2015). Performance of a gymnastics skill benefits from an external focus of attention. Journal of Sports Sciences, 33, 1807-1813.
Pascua, L.A.M., Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2015). Additive benefits of external focus and enhanced performance expectancy for motor learning. Journal of Sports Sciences, 33, 58-66.
Wulf, G., Chiviacowsky, S., & Drews, R. (2015). External focus and autonomy support: Two important factors in motor learning have additive benefits. Human Movement Science, 40, 176-184.
